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用語
定義
Perspective
A way in which a situation is viewed and understood.
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Worldview
A person’s overall way of understanding the world based on values and beliefs.
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Value
A belief about what is important or desirable.
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Environmental value system
A worldview that shapes how people respond to environmental issues.
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Ecocentric
A nature-centred perspective that values ecosystems and ecological limits.
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Anthropocentric
A human-centred perspective that focuses on managing nature for human benefit.
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Technocentric
A technology-centred perspective that believes innovation can solve environmental problems.
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Intrinsic value
The value something has in itself, regardless of its usefulness to humans.
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Instrumental value
The value something has because it is useful to humans.
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Stewardship
The responsible management and care of the environment.
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Stakeholder
A person or group affected by or interested in an issue.
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System
A set of interacting components.
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Component
A part of a system.
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Input
Matter, energy or information entering a system.
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Output
Matter, energy or information leaving a system.
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Storage
A place where matter or energy is kept within a system.
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Flow
The movement of matter, energy or information within or between systems.
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Transfer
Movement of matter or energy without changing its form.
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Transformation
A change in the form or state of matter or energy.
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Open system
A system that exchanges both matter and energy with its surroundings.
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Closed system
A system that exchanges energy but not matter with its surroundings.
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Model
A simplified representation of a real system.
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Feedback
A process where the output of a system affects its future behaviour.
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Positive feedback
Feedback that amplifies an initial change.
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Negative feedback
Feedback that counteracts an initial change and stabilises a system.
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Equilibrium
A state where opposing processes are balanced.
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Dynamic equilibrium
A stable state where flows continue but the overall system remains balanced.
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Stability
The ability of a system to remain unchanged or return to its original state.
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Resilience
The ability of a system to recover after disturbance.
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Tipping point
A threshold where a small change can cause a large and possibly irreversible shift.
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Emergent property
A whole-system feature that appears from interactions between parts.
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Sustainability
The ability to meet present needs without reducing future generations’ ability to meet theirs.
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Sustainable development
Development that meets present needs without compromising future generations.
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Natural capital
Natural resources and ecosystem assets that provide value.
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Natural income
The sustainable yield or services produced by natural capital.
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Ecological footprint
The land and water area needed to supply resources and absorb waste.
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Biocapacity
The ability of an ecosystem to produce resources and absorb waste.
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Overshoot
A situation where resource use exceeds the environment’s capacity to regenerate or absorb waste.
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Environmental justice
Fair treatment in environmental benefits and burdens.
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Intergenerational equity
Fairness between present and future generations.
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Intragenerational equity
Fairness among people living today.
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Planetary boundaries
Limits within which humanity can operate safely without destabilising Earth systems.
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Pollution
The addition of a substance or energy to the environment faster than it can be made harmless.
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Biodiversity
The variety of living organisms, including species, genetic and ecosystem diversity.
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Ecosystem service
A benefit that humans obtain from ecosystems.
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Provisioning service
A product obtained from ecosystems, such as food, water or timber.
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Regulating service
A natural process that controls environmental conditions, such as climate regulation or flood control.
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Cultural service
A non-material benefit from ecosystems, such as recreation, education or spiritual value.
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Supporting service
A natural process that supports other ecosystem services, such as nutrient cycling or soil formation.
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Conservation
The protection and management of natural resources and ecosystems.
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Restoration
The process of repairing a damaged ecosystem.
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Mitigation
Actions that reduce the causes or severity of an environmental problem.
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Adaptation
Adjustments made to reduce harm from environmental change.
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Precautionary principle
The idea that action should be taken to prevent harm even when full scientific certainty is lacking.
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Species
A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
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Population
All individuals of the same species living in the same area.
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Community
All populations of different species living and interacting in an area.
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Ecosystem
A community of organisms interacting with each other and with their abiotic environment.
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Habitat
The place where an organism lives.
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Niche
The role of a species in an ecosystem, including how it uses resources and interacts with others.
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Biotic factor
A living factor that affects an ecosystem.
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Abiotic factor
A non-living physical or chemical factor that affects an ecosystem.
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Limiting factor
A factor that restricts population growth or distribution.
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Carrying capacity
The maximum population size that an environment can support sustainably.
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S curve
A population growth curve that levels off at carrying capacity.
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J curve
A rapid exponential population growth curve that may overshoot and crash.
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Competition
Interaction where organisms use the same limited resource.
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Predation
Interaction where one organism kills and eats another.
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Mutualism
Interaction where both species benefit.
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Quadrat
A square frame used to sample organisms in a known area.
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Transect
A line or belt used to sample organisms along an environmental gradient.
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Capture-mark-recapture
A method used to estimate the population size of mobile animals.
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Lincoln Index
A formula used to estimate population size from capture-mark-recapture data.
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Producer
An organism that makes its own food, usually by photosynthesis.
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Consumer
An organism that obtains energy by eating other organisms.
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Trophic level
A feeding level in a food chain or food web.
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Food chain
A sequence showing energy transfer from one organism to another.
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Food web
A network of interconnected food chains.
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Photosynthesis
The process by which producers use light energy to make glucose from carbon dioxide and water.
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Respiration
The process by which organisms release energy from organic molecules such as glucose.
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Biomass
The total mass of living organic matter in an organism, population or trophic level.
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Productivity
The rate at which biomass or energy is produced.
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Pyramid of numbers
A diagram showing the number of organisms at each trophic level.
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Pyramid of biomass
A diagram showing the biomass at each trophic level.
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Pyramid of energy
A diagram showing energy flow through trophic levels.
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Bioaccumulation
The build-up of a pollutant in an organism over time.
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Biomagnification
The increase in pollutant concentration at higher trophic levels.
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Persistent pollutant
A pollutant that remains in the environment for a long time.
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Biodegradable
Able to be broken down by living organisms.
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Non-biodegradable
Not easily broken down by living organisms.
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Carbon cycle
The movement of carbon between the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.
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Carbon store
A place where carbon is held.
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Carbon flux
The movement of carbon from one store to another.
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Carbon sink
A store that absorbs more carbon than it releases.
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Carbon source
A process or store that releases carbon.
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Fossil fuel
A non-renewable fuel formed from ancient organic matter.
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Combustion
Burning, usually releasing carbon dioxide.
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Decomposition
The breakdown of dead organic matter by decomposers.
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Deforestation
The removal of forests.
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Reforestation
Replanting trees in an area that was previously forested.
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Afforestation
Planting trees in an area that was not recently forested.
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Carbon sequestration
The capture and storage of carbon.
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Greenhouse gas
A gas that absorbs infrared radiation and contributes to the greenhouse effect.
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Enhanced greenhouse effect
The strengthening of the greenhouse effect due to increased greenhouse gas concentrations.
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Global warming
The long-term increase in average global temperature.
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Climate change
Long-term changes in climate patterns.
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Weather
The short-term condition of the atmosphere.
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Climate
The long-term average weather conditions of an area.
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Biome
A large ecological region with a characteristic climate and vegetation.
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Insolation
Incoming solar radiation.
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Latitude
Distance north or south of the equator.
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Altitude
Height above sea level.
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Precipitation
Water falling from the atmosphere, such as rain or snow.
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Atmospheric circulation
The large-scale movement of air that redistributes heat and moisture.
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Hadley cell
A circulation cell where warm air rises near the equator and sinks around 30 degrees latitude.
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Ferrel cell
A mid-latitude circulation cell.
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Polar cell
A high-latitude circulation cell.
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High pressure
An area where air sinks, usually linked to dry conditions.
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Low pressure
An area where air rises, usually linked to cloud and rainfall.
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Ocean current
A large-scale movement of ocean water that transfers heat.
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Tundra
A cold biome with low vegetation and often permafrost.
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Tropical rainforest
A hot, wet biome with very high biodiversity.
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Desert
A dry biome with very low precipitation.
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Grassland
A biome dominated by grasses.
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Savanna
A tropical grassland with scattered trees.
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Zonation
The distribution of species or communities along an environmental gradient.
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Succession
The gradual change in species composition in an ecosystem over time.
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Primary succession
Succession that begins on bare rock or a surface without soil.
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Secondary succession
Succession that begins where soil remains after disturbance.
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Pioneer species
The first species to colonise an area during succession.
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Climax community
A relatively stable community reached at the end of succession.
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Seral stage
A stage in ecological succession.
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Soil formation
The development of soil through weathering, decomposition and organic matter accumulation.
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Weathering
The breakdown of rocks in place.
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Erosion
The removal and transport of soil or rock.
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Humus
Dark organic material formed from decomposed matter.
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Species richness
The number of different species in an area.
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Species evenness
How evenly individuals are distributed among species.
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Simpson’s diversity index
A measure of diversity that considers richness and evenness.
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Evolution
The change in inherited characteristics of a population over generations.
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Natural selection
The process where individuals with advantageous traits survive and reproduce more successfully.
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Adaptation
A characteristic that improves survival or reproduction in a particular environment.
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Selection pressure
An environmental factor that affects which individuals survive and reproduce.
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Fitness
The ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment.
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Mutation
A random change in DNA that can create variation.
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Speciation
The formation of a new species.
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Isolation
Separation of populations, which can lead to speciation.
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Habitat loss
The destruction or removal of natural habitat.
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Habitat fragmentation
The breaking of habitat into smaller isolated patches.
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Overexploitation
The unsustainable use or harvesting of a species or resource.
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Invasive species
A non-native species that spreads and causes ecological harm.
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Native species
A species that naturally occurs in an area.
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IUCN Red List
A system used to classify species by extinction risk.
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Endangered
A species facing a high risk of extinction.
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Critically endangered
A species facing an extremely high risk of extinction.
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Extinct
No individuals of a species remain alive.
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In-situ conservation
Conservation within the natural habitat.
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Ex-situ conservation
Conservation outside the natural habitat.
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Captive breeding
Breeding species in controlled conditions such as zoos.
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Seed bank
A store of seeds used to conserve plant genetic diversity.
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Reintroduction
Returning a species to an area where it previously lived.
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Flagship species
A species used to attract public support for conservation.
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Keystone species
A species with a disproportionately large effect on ecosystem structure.
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Protected area
An area managed to conserve nature.
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Habitat corridor
A strip of habitat connecting separated habitat patches.
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Buffer zone
An area around a protected area that reduces external impacts.
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Edge effect
Changes in conditions and species at the boundary of a habitat.
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CITES
An international agreement controlling trade in endangered species.
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Rewilding
Restoring natural processes and species to an ecosystem.
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Trophic cascade
A series of effects through a food web caused by changes at one trophic level.
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Hydrological cycle
The movement of water between the atmosphere, land and oceans.
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Freshwater
Water with low salt concentration.
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Groundwater
Water stored underground in soil or rock.
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Surface run-off
Water flowing over the land surface.
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Infiltration
The movement of water into soil from the surface.
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Percolation
The downward movement of water through soil or porous rock.
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Aquifer
An underground layer of permeable rock or sediment that stores groundwater.
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Evaporation
The change of liquid water into water vapour.
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Transpiration
The loss of water vapour from plants.
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Condensation
The change of water vapour into liquid water.
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Interception
Water caught by vegetation before reaching the ground.
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Water scarcity
A shortage of available freshwater to meet demand.
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Physical water scarcity
A lack of available freshwater in an area.
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Economic water scarcity
A lack of access to freshwater due to poor infrastructure or poverty.
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Water security
Reliable access to sufficient safe water.
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Desalination
The removal of salt from seawater.
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Irrigation
The artificial supply of water to crops.
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Drip irrigation
A water-efficient irrigation method that delivers water directly to plant roots.
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Over-abstraction
Removing water faster than it can be replenished.
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Aquaculture
The farming of aquatic organisms.
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Wild capture fishery
The harvesting of wild fish or aquatic organisms.
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MSY
The largest catch that can be taken repeatedly without reducing the long-term productivity of a fish stock.
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Overfishing
Harvesting fish faster than they can reproduce.
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Fish stock
A population of fish used as a resource.
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Bycatch
Unwanted species caught during fishing.
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Quota
A legal limit on how much can be harvested.
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Closed season
A period when fishing is banned to allow reproduction.
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Marine protected area
An ocean area protected to conserve marine ecosystems.
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Multi-trophic aquaculture
Aquaculture where wastes from one species are used by another species.
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Nitrification
The conversion of ammonia to nitrite and then nitrate by bacteria.
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Ammonia
A nitrogen compound in waste that can be converted to nitrate.
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Nitrate
A soluble nitrogen ion used by plants and algae.
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Water pollution
The contamination of water by harmful substances or energy.
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Point source pollution
Pollution from a single identifiable source.
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Non-point source pollution
Pollution from diffuse and multiple sources.
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Eutrophication
Nutrient enrichment of water that causes algal blooms and oxygen depletion.
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Algal bloom
Rapid growth of algae due to excess nutrients.
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Dissolved oxygen
Oxygen dissolved in water and available to aquatic organisms.
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BOD
The amount of oxygen required by microorganisms to decompose organic matter in water.
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Turbidity
The cloudiness of water caused by suspended particles.
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Indicator species
A species whose presence or absence indicates environmental conditions.
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Bioindicator
A living organism used to monitor environmental conditions.
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Soil
A mixture of mineral particles, organic matter, water, air and organisms.
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Soil profile
A vertical section through soil showing different horizons.
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Soil horizon
A distinct layer in a soil profile.
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Topsoil
The upper soil layer rich in organic matter and nutrients.
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Subsoil
The soil layer below topsoil with less organic matter.
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Parent material
The rock or sediment from which soil forms.
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Soil texture
The relative proportions of sand, silt and clay.
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Soil structure
The arrangement of soil particles.
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Porosity
The amount of pore space in soil.
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Permeability
How easily water moves through soil.
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Leaching
The removal of dissolved nutrients by moving water.
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Nutrient leaching
The loss of soluble mineral ions such as nitrates from soil.
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Soil fertility
The ability of soil to support plant growth.
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Agriculture
The production of crops or livestock for food and resources.
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Food security
Reliable access to sufficient safe and nutritious food.
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Food insecurity
A lack of reliable access to sufficient safe and nutritious food.
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Commercial farming
Farming mainly for sale and profit.
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Subsistence farming
Farming mainly to feed the farmer and family.
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Monoculture
The cultivation of a single crop species over an area.
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Polyculture
The cultivation of multiple crop species in the same area.
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Crop rotation
Growing different crops in sequence to maintain fertility and reduce pests.
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Cover crop
A crop grown to protect and improve soil.
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Terracing
Creating stepped fields on slopes to reduce erosion.
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Contour ploughing
Ploughing along contour lines to reduce run-off and erosion.
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Windbreak
A row of trees or plants used to reduce wind erosion.
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Mulching
Covering soil to reduce evaporation, erosion and weed growth.
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Overgrazing
Grazing that removes vegetation faster than it can regrow.
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Desertification
The degradation of land in dry areas into desert-like conditions.
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Soil degradation
The decline in soil quality.
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Salinisation
The build-up of salts in soil.
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Food waste
Food that is lost or discarded.
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Atmosphere
The layer of gases surrounding Earth.
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Troposphere
The lowest layer of the atmosphere where weather occurs.
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Stratosphere
The atmospheric layer containing the ozone layer.
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Ozone layer
A layer of ozone in the stratosphere that absorbs harmful UV radiation.
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Albedo
The reflectivity of a surface.
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Radiation
Energy transferred as electromagnetic waves.
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Infrared radiation
Heat radiation emitted by Earth.
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Climate model
A computer model used to simulate and predict climate.
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Proxy data
Indirect evidence used to reconstruct past environmental conditions.
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Ice core
A cylinder of ice used as proxy evidence of past climate.
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Tree ring
A growth ring used as proxy evidence of past climate conditions.
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Temperature anomaly
The difference from a long-term average temperature.
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Ice-albedo feedback
Positive feedback where melting ice lowers albedo and increases warming.
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Permafrost
Permanently frozen ground.
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Sea-level rise
An increase in average sea level.
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Saltwater intrusion
The movement of seawater into freshwater systems.
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Extreme weather
Unusual or severe weather events.
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Climate justice
Fairness in responsibility and impacts related to climate change.
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Vulnerability
The degree to which people or systems are likely to be harmed.
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Adaptive capacity
The ability to adjust to environmental change.
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Decarbonization
The reduction of carbon dioxide emissions from human activities.
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Carbon tax
A tax on carbon emissions to encourage reductions.
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Carbon trading
A system where emission allowances can be bought and sold.
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Net zero
A balance between greenhouse gas emissions released and removed.
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Carbon footprint
The total greenhouse gas emissions caused by a person, product or activity.
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CCS
Carbon capture and storage, where carbon dioxide is captured and stored underground.
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Geoengineering
Large-scale technological intervention in Earth systems to reduce climate change.
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Solar radiation management
Geoengineering that aims to reflect more sunlight away from Earth.
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UNFCCC
An international treaty framework for addressing climate change.
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IPCC
A scientific body that assesses climate change research.
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Paris Agreement
An international agreement aiming to limit global warming.
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NDC
A country’s national climate action pledge under the Paris Agreement.
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Free-rider problem
When a country benefits from others’ actions without contributing itself.
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Tragedy of the commons
A situation where individuals overuse a shared resource for personal benefit.
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UV radiation
Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.
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UVA
Longer-wavelength ultraviolet radiation that can damage skin.
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UVB
Ultraviolet radiation that can cause sunburn and is partly absorbed by ozone.
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UVC
High-energy ultraviolet radiation mostly absorbed by the atmosphere.
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Ozone
O₃, a molecule made of three oxygen atoms.
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ODS
A substance that depletes the ozone layer.
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CFC
A chlorine-containing compound that destroys stratospheric ozone.
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Chlorine radical
A reactive chlorine atom that catalytically destroys ozone.
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Dobson unit
A unit measuring the amount of ozone in a vertical column of atmosphere.
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Montreal Protocol
An international agreement to phase out ozone-depleting substances.
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Kigali Amendment
An agreement to reduce HFCs due to their climate impact.
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Natural resource
A material or service from nature that humans use.
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Renewable resource
A resource that can be replenished naturally if managed sustainably.
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Non-renewable resource
A resource that is finite or forms too slowly to be replaced on human timescales.
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Resource security
Reliable access to necessary resources.
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Resource depletion
The reduction or exhaustion of natural resources.
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EIA
A process used to assess likely environmental impacts before a project begins.
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Circular economy
An economic system designed to reduce waste and reuse materials.
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Linear economy
An economic system based on take, make and dispose.
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Energy source
A source from which useful energy can be obtained.
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Renewable energy
Energy from sources that are naturally replenished.
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Non-renewable energy
Energy from finite resources such as fossil fuels.
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Fossil fuel dependence
Reliance on coal, oil or natural gas for energy.
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Energy security
Reliable access to affordable energy.
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Energy poverty
A lack of access to affordable and reliable energy.
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Intermittent energy
Energy supply that varies over time, such as solar or wind.
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Fracking
Injecting high-pressure fluid into rock to release oil or gas.
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Green hydrogen
Hydrogen produced using renewable energy.
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Energy transition
The shift from fossil fuels to low-carbon energy systems.
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Solid domestic waste
Waste produced by households.
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Hazardous waste
Waste that is dangerous to organisms or the environment.
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E-waste
Discarded electronic devices.
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Plastic pollution
The accumulation of plastic waste in the environment.
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Microplastic
Very small plastic particles.
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Landfill
A site where waste is buried.
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Leachate
Polluted liquid that drains from landfill or waste.
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Incineration
Burning waste at high temperature.
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Waste-to-energy
Burning waste to generate useful energy.
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Recycling
Processing waste materials into new products.
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Re-use
Using a product again without remanufacturing it.
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Composting
The decomposition of organic waste into compost.
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Radioactive waste
Waste containing radioactive materials.
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Half-life
The time taken for half of a radioactive substance to decay.
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Population dynamics
Changes in population size and structure over time.
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CBR
The number of births per 1000 people per year.
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CDR
The number of deaths per 1000 people per year.
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NIR
The natural increase rate calculated from births minus deaths.
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TFR
The average number of children a woman is expected to have.
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Replacement level
The fertility rate needed to keep a population stable.
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Doubling time
The time it takes for a population to double.
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Rule of 70
A formula where doubling time equals 70 divided by growth rate percentage.
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Life expectancy
The average number of years a person is expected to live.
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HDI
A measure of development using health, education and income.
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Age-sex pyramid
A graph showing the age and sex structure of a population.
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Dependency ratio
The ratio of dependents to working-age people.
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Population momentum
Continued population growth due to a large young population.
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DTM
A model showing changes in birth and death rates as a country develops.
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Urbanization
The increasing proportion of people living in urban areas.
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Urban system
A city viewed as a system with inputs, outputs, stores and flows.
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Rural-to-urban migration
Movement of people from rural areas to cities.
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Push factor
A reason that encourages people to leave an area.
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Pull factor
A reason that attracts people to an area.
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Urban sprawl
The outward spread of low-density urban development.
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Suburbanization
The movement of people and development from city centres to suburbs.
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Deurbanization
The movement of people away from urban areas.
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Infrastructure
Basic physical systems such as roads, water supply and electricity.
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Built-up area
Land covered by buildings, roads and other artificial surfaces.
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Urban heat island
Higher temperatures in urban areas than surrounding rural areas.
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Impervious surface
A surface that water cannot easily infiltrate.
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Green infrastructure
Natural or semi-natural features used to provide environmental benefits in cities.
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Urban resilience
The ability of a city to withstand and recover from disturbances.
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Ecological planning
Urban planning that treats the city as an ecosystem and integrates environmental limits.
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Mixed land use
Planning that combines residential, commercial and other uses in the same area.
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Compact city
A dense urban form designed to reduce sprawl and car dependence.
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Social mix
The presence of different social groups within the same urban area.
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Air pollution
The contamination of the atmosphere by harmful substances or energy.
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Particulate matter
Tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in air.
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PM2.5
Particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometres or less.
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PM10
Particulate matter with a diameter of 10 micrometres or less.
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NOx
Nitrogen oxides produced by combustion.
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SO₂
Sulfur dioxide, often produced by burning sulfur-containing fossil fuels.
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VOC
Volatile organic compound that can react to form photochemical smog.
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Primary pollutant
A pollutant emitted directly from a source.
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Secondary pollutant
A pollutant formed when primary pollutants react in the environment.
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Tropospheric ozone
Ground-level ozone formed by reactions between NOx and VOCs in sunlight.
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Photochemical smog
Air pollution formed when sunlight causes reactions between NOx and VOCs.
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Acid deposition
The deposition of acidic substances from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms.
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Acid rain
Rain with a lower pH caused mainly by sulfuric and nitric acids.
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Temperature inversion
A condition where warm air traps cooler polluted air near the ground.
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Cardiovascular disease
Disease affecting the heart or blood vessels.
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Respiratory disease
Disease affecting the lungs or breathing system.
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Catalytic converter
A vehicle device that reduces harmful exhaust emissions.
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Low emission zone
An area where high-polluting vehicles are restricted.
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